The theory of international peacekeeping has been developing only in the last fifty years, but the specialized literature speaks of the beginning of multilateral humanitarian interventions in the modern world since the Congress of Vienna (1815). During the discussions on the constructive norms of armed humanitarian intervention in international politics in the mid-1990s, two examples from 19th-century Balkan history were cited: Europe's reaction to the War of Independence in Greece (1821 - 1828) and the April Uprising in Bulgaria in 1876. Scholars from Oxford and George Washington University argue that the joint British-French naval operation in support of the Greek people in 1827 and the Russian war in support of the Bulgarian people fifty years later are a kind of preclassical example of multilateral and unilateral humanitarian intervention. In both cases, it is an unplanned military operation, which is carried out primarily due to the pressure of two powerful psychological factors: public opinion and the press. The international community is shocked by the trampling of universal humanitarian values ​​and norms and to some extent identifies itself with the victims of brutal violence. Western Europe felt closely associated with Hellenic culture and reacted against the infidel oppression of the Christian population on the other side of the continent. Russia strongly believes in its pan-Slavic mission, and although it feels unprepared militarily for such a large-scale operation, it is reluctant to take action to protect its Orthodox Slavic brethren. Of course, in both cases, in addition to emotional public attitude, we can clearly distinguish the dominant geostrategic goals and interests of the Great Powers in the Straits and the Eastern Mediterranean.

 

1. Nature and basic principles.

Peacekeeping is conducted in order to move from hostilities to stable peace in a specific geographical region. Experience has shown that this can only be achieved with the political will of the parties to the conflict. UN peacekeeping operations are based on the presumption that the impartial presence of armed forces in the crisis area can easily reduce tensions between warring factions, allowing for a transition to constructive political negotiations. The change in the nature of conflicts is causing an evolution in the nature of peacekeeping. Initially, the operations were conducted as a means of resolving interstate conflicts. Subsequently, it began to be used more and more often in internal conflicts and civil wars, which are often characterized by numerous armed factions with different political goals and diverse lines of command.

Since the end of the Cold War, there has been an evolution in the tasks, functions and mandates of the UN. The traditional functions of separating warring parties have gradually evolved into creating a military security framework in certain territories. Legitimacy was given the function of imposing peace and initiating such an operation without the consent of the warring parties. An essential feature of the so-called "New Generation PfP" is that they can include tasks such as maintaining public order, supporting the building of democratic institutions, rebuilding destroyed infrastructure and more.

The first (traditional) peacekeeping operations were considered to be operations using exclusively military personnel, but without the use of force. The UN organizes and conducts them to support, maintain or restore peace in the conflict area. They are conducted by a UN Security Council resolution only by UN forces and under the direct command of the UN. The personnel involved in the operations have only light weapons, the rules for the use of force are limited, ie. the actions that are taken are limited and are carried out only with the consent of the host country.

As a result of the evolution in the understandings and philosophy for conducting this type of operations, tendencies for change in the nature of the modern world conservation are gradually emerging. They are characterized by the fact that:

 the operation may be launched and the Security Council resolution may be served at a later date;

 it can be conducted not only by UN forces, a mandate is given to other organizations that can conduct the operation;

 the personnel have heavy weapons;

 a joint command is created for the operation;

 The operation has a clear mandate and extended rules for the use of force.

 

At the present stage, more and more PfPs are being carried out by a resolution of the UN Security Council, which is actively leading the efforts of the international community in support of world peace and security. The resolutions are based on the concept of peacekeeping, reflected in Chapter VII of the UN Charter. What is special about it is that it envisages not only the maintenance, but also the establishment by force of peace. Over time, the international practice in this regard is constantly enriched, imposing the following basic principles for the preparation and implementation of TSOs:

 consent and cooperation of warring parties or groups in order to avoid the imposition of peace by force;

 support of the UN Security Council by the international community in determining, extending or revoking the mandate of each operation on the recommendation of the UN Secretary-General;

 the troops, military and police observers needed for the operation are provided voluntarily by UN member states;

 the operations are led by the UN Secretary-General and he is accountable to the Security Council for all matters related to them, the military personnel provided by the Member States are under national authority but under the Secretary-General for operational matters;

 each operation has a clear mandate, reflecting the consensus reached in the decisions of the SS to resolve the conflict;

 in the course of the operation, full impartiality is maintained towards the parties to the conflict and interference in the internal affairs of the host country is not allowed;

 in operations involving troops, force shall be used to the minimum extent possible and as a rule of self-defense, insofar as this does not conflict with the mission's objectives;

 The costs of each operation are covered by the UN budget, formed collectively by the UN member states - each of them pays a contribution under a certain scheme depending on the financial possibilities.

Depending on the mandate, peacekeeping operations include:

 ensuring the implementation of a comprehensive peace agreement;

 monitoring compliance with the ceasefire or ceasefire agreement to ensure political negotiations and peaceful settlement of disputes;

 providing a safe environment in order to encourage a return to normal peacetime;

 prevention of outbreaks and spread of cross-border conflicts;

 leadership of countries or territories during the transition to a stable government, based on democratic principles, good governance and economic development;

 administration of territories during the transition period and thus performing functions that are normally the responsibility of the government.

The military component of the operation is essential for its success, but it should be noted that civilian participants also have great responsibilities. As a rule, there is a tendency for the objectives of the operations to be met when the tasks of civilian participants include:

 assisting former warring parties to implement complex peace agreements through contacts with numerous political and civilian actors;

 assisting in the delivery of humanitarian aid;

 assisting in the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of former belligerent countries;

 election observation and conduct;

 strengthening laws, including supporting legal and civilian police reforms;

 

 improving respect for human rights and investigating violations;

 assisting in post-conflict reconstruction;

 appointment of a temporary territorial administration to organize the transition to independence.

 

Characteristics of the conflict

Some aspects of the conflict remain unchanged at the strategic, operational and tactical levels. From the point of view of the adoption of an individual, concrete and consistent with the current capabilities of the Bulgarian Army approach to conduct actions within the coalition forces, the following characteristics are decisive for the nature of conflicts at the operational and tactical level.

The main unchanging characteristics that affect the composition of the forces and means to manage and carry out the mission are complexity and uncertainty, chaos, threat, stressful environment, security environment, needs and resources, public opinion, evolving technologies.

Complexity and uncertainty.

This characteristic most often leads to indecision in the management staff, the direct consequence of which is the emergence of hesitation. This is the factor that hinders action and turns the simple into the complex, and the difficult makes it seem impossible.

It can be psychological in nature - indecision about what to do, or physical - the result of intense enemy fire.

It can be externally caused - adverse effects or climatic conditions, as well as the result of internal deficiencies - poor planning or interpersonal conflicts. The change in the influence of these characteristics requires a change in the organizational forms of management of the formations. With the increased degree of complexity and uncertainty, the preservation of the established structure in other conditions begins to become a brake on the development of the system - with low complexity and uncertainty, the exchange of information needed for management is too small, the information system is simple and does not require change, as the resilience of the situation does not require a quick response.

Chaos.

Due to the fact that it is a human activity, the conflict is difficult to predict and chaotic. Incomplete, incorrect or contradictory information creates an information blackout, which limits the accurate assessment of the situation and leads to confusion. The commander must take advantage of the situation and increase the chaos of the actions of the opponents, while maintaining by all means the organized implementation of his own plan.

 

Threat.

Force majeure - whether real or perceived - is the most appropriate means by which the commander forces opponents to do what he wants. The use of force or threat from it is dangerous and leads to fear. To a greater or lesser degree, everyone is afraid, and the role of commander is essential to help those commanded to show courage and overcome their fear of success.

Stressful environment.

Conducting actions with armed groups is a stress factor by nature. The influence of dangers, fear, exhaustion, the negative effect of loneliness and deprivation to varying degrees affect the will and self-control of personnel. In order to overcome the opponents, it is necessary to break the will of their commanders, while maintaining and supporting the self-control and the fighting spirit of their own forces.

Security environment.

While the Republic of Bulgaria retains its will and ability to explore only its own national interests, there is a growing likelihood that some of our armed forces will be involved in an alliance established by treaty or in a coalition formed for a special purpose (ad hoc). .е. the operation will almost always be organized in accordance with allied obligations or will be legitimized by an international mandate. Our country's participation in multinational forces must be in line with the requirement for the necessary capabilities for joint action with its allies or coalition partners.

Needs and resources.

According to current perceptions, the scale of future operations may not require force reform, but may require some form of recovery, transformation or mobilization. The analysis of current trends leads to the conclusion that conflicts will be conducted in an environment of normal national and international relations. Therefore, resources (personnel and material resources) must be limited. The availability and capacity of strategic civil and military transport and the necessary infrastructure in the crisis region have a particular impact on the number and composition of forces and the value of their subsequent rotation.

          Popular opinion.

Increased opportunities to directly cover current world events from conflicts in the media, the Internet and other means of communication pose a risk to international leaders, politicians, opponents and the public to receive information about hostilities at the same time and even before the operation commander. Of course, this does not necessarily require termination or the start of another operation, but the potential dangers are there. In order to prevent such a development, it is necessary to choose the most effective way to influence public opinion. This goal can best be achieved by developing a useful and active action plan with the media in the early stages of the preparation of operations and updating it regularly.

Emerging technologies.

New technologies are evolving rapidly and new equipment and supplies may need to be delivered in the course of the conflict in order to continue to be effective and reduce losses. It is important that action is planned and taken on the basis of increased military capabilities. There is a desire to provide military technology and weapons to reduce the unattractiveness of war. The accelerated development of information systems, high-precision weapons and CEM tools increase the possibilities for avoiding direct combat contact with opposing forces. The degree of probability of realizing these possibilities is not clear and is difficult to determine with great accuracy. It depends on the cost, risk, nature and type of potential opponents. Taking into account the developing technologies and the change of the international military-political situation, the probable directions for the development of the future operations are:

 large concentration of forces and resources in the area of ​​operations (battlefield);

 need to act (to fight from a distance), opposing the requirement to conduct active close combat;

 increased accuracy and lethality;

 asymmetry;

 coalition;

 protection of forces;

 civil aspects.

Other organizations.

Commanders of all ranks are required to make a full assessment of the organizations operating in their area of ​​responsibility, including diplomatic and military representatives and forces from other departments. The activities of non-military agencies and organizations cover all civilian issues and non-military structures involved in solving them, which the commander must take into account during the operation (refugees, homeless, internees, international organizations, charities, NGOs, media).

Nature of planning operations other than war.

In planning, it is necessary to take into account the identity, role, interests, intentions and methods of action of all participating forces and agencies and coordination between them in order to achieve unity of effort. The unification of military operations not only with one or another country, but also with many international and non-governmental organizations is one of the biggest challenges for the Bulgarian Army. It should always be borne in mind that many of these organizations are not obliged to coordinate their activities with military formations and may have different goals and values.

 

2. Nature, conditions of occurrence and characteristics of operations other than war

Increasingly, the armed forces are being used in a non-traditional way. Conducting hostilities according to conventional warfare is becoming less and less likely and less common. It is therefore necessary to make a clear distinction between combat operations and non-combat operations - operations other than war

A combat operation is an organized set of coordinated and interconnected in purpose, tasks, place and time battles, combat operations, battles, strikes and maneuvers of armed formations, conducted simultaneously or sequentially on a single plan and plan to achieve a specific goal in a given area. certain time.

The fighting takes place in conditions of military conflict. They are operations in which the goals are achieved by maintaining a system of tactical, operational and strategic actions.

In international practice, there is still no uniformly accepted definition of operations other than war. Various definitions are found in most countries and international organizations. One of the main differences is in the approach to definition, ie. whether these are typical military operations or part of an integrated civil-military approach to managing and resolving crises of a different nature. The lack of a common understanding affects the conduct of operations. Although the participation of Bulgarian formations, especially in recent years, for such operations mainly uses NATO terms, tactics, techniques and procedures, it is necessary to adopt clearer definitions and definitions.

Types of military operations other than war

Based on national and international sources examining such operations, we assume that for the Bulgarian practice we can classify military operations other than war as follows:

• peacekeeping operations (peacekeeping operations);

• Arms Control and Proliferation Operations (WEF);

• humanitarian aid operations (CSR);

• search and rescue operations, combat and non-combat;

• evacuation operations (EC) - combat and non-combat;

• operations in support of other security bodies against the proliferation of WMD, illicit trafficking in human beings, weapons and drugs, against terrorism and for the protection and defense of important sites;

• Disaster and Accident Management (BIR) operations;

• operations to ensure air and maritime sovereignty (CSO);

• operations outside the country based on international commitment (OMA);

• operations to assist civilian authorities and non-governmental organizations (CSOs).

Future of peacekeeping operations. The essence of network centrism and network-centric capabilities and directions for the development of operations in support of international peace and security The essence of the concept of "network centricity" is the logical unification of the concepts of "network" and "center". A network can be understood as the construction of a single battlefield information field as a set of impact and distributed fire systems distributed in the existing physical space. This network can be deployed globally, regionally and locally. Centric actions are determined by the battle system (system of subsystems) formed by the network, the ability to concentrate in a short time efforts and capabilities in any region of the world, region or battlefield. Network-centric actions require the creation of information-intensive, broad-spectrum and highly mobile active assets. This system must have two main characteristics: high speed of transformation in accordance with the challenge and speed of management (ability to quickly restore abilities and a high degree of self-synchronization).

 The speed of management can be considered in four main aspects:

1. Gaining information superiority through timely receipt, processing and analysis of incoming information and making quick decisions.

2. Resolute realization of the information superiority over the opposing forces by massaging the effects, and not by massaging the forces. This can be achieved by building the ability to achieve maximum effect with as little effort as possible. The achieved information superiority allows quick and accurate identification of critical points and their priority in the functional system of the opponents and overcoming them by consistently concentrating efforts. This makes it possible to maintain small but highly effective forces and means.

3. Simultaneous impact on the various subsystems in the functional system of the opposing and achieving a synergistic effect.

4. Retention and development of success and limiting the ability of opponents to restore capabilities.

Achieving network centrism is unthinkable without building a single battlefield. It is formed by deploying a system of disparate sensors located in different environments (on earth, in the air and in space) and maintaining constant information. Awareness is the process of continuously collecting and integrating intelligence and information.  At the same time, the information received from the sensors must be identified, analyzed and summarized in an information picture. The construction of the network-centric architecture can be done by providing access of the active means (fire, electronic, special, etc.) to the synthesized information picture from:

   own and coalition forces in the area of ​​operation and in neighboring areas;

 sensors for visual observation and photography;

 military police bodies;

 police formations;

 bodies for investigation and fight against crime;

 air traffic control authorities;

 special intelligence, etc.

 In future conflicts, the distinction between war and peace, between soldiers and ordinary citizens, will be significantly blurred. These conflicts will include a set of joint conventional and local peacekeeping operations and operations against terrorist groups and organizations. This type of military action can be accurately defined as hybrid, which is determined by the variety of forms, methods, forces and means used in them.

Hybrid wars are a combination of traditional warfare and terrorist acts and riots, ie. a combination of the characteristics of conventional warfare (high number of casualties) and unconventional conflicts (great enthusiasm and bigotry).

The hybrid operation can be considered as a combination of consecutive or parallel effectively connected operations of different type and nature, which can be both joint and component, in national or multinational format.

Hybrid warfare 10 involves the use of a variety of traditional and asymmetric tactics, techniques and procedures. The analysis of modern threats shows that what was once considered a lesser threat is growing in modern conditions due to the access of terrorists, insurgents and even criminal groups to modern weapons systems.

The network capabilities and characteristics of hybrid operations require a high level of technological development with the ability to synchronize and self-synchronize the system, a high degree of flexibility in both planning and conducting operations. To achieve this flexibility, it is necessary to have feedback in the system, which can be built by creating and integrating into the architecture of the system subsystems for analysis, evaluation and forecasting of the effects of own, coalition, friendly and countermeasures in the area of ​​operation and learning from practices.

Self-synchronization is the ability of the military structure to reorganize synchronously with the change of the situation through a changed principle and is determined by the theory of complex systems, according to which systems are best organized on the principle of "bottom up".

External synchronization includes:

 introduction of uniform criteria for management, analysis and sharing of intelligence information;

 concluding additional agreements with coalition forces in the area of ​​operation, which are not members of NATO, and preparing procedures for interaction;

 concluding agreements with non-governmental organizations and preparing procedures for interaction;

 establishing procedures and the possibility to obtain intelligence at the operational and strategic level for the political and social situation in the region and in neighboring or influential regions.

3. Peacetime operations in support of international peace and security.

Arms control and proliferation operations

Here we will distinguish two types of these operations: conducting such an operation in the context of the OPM, when the military force with such actions will improve control in the area of ​​responsibility and increase trust between the parties by reducing the proliferation of weapons and control over armaments between countries and / or other subjects of international law on the basis of an international treaty without the existence of a specific crisis or conflict.

The main goal of arms control operations is to improve the security of countries in crisis areas, both directly affected by the crisis and neighboring countries. Arms control is primarily a political activity, but is usually carried out by military formations or their representatives. It is based on a decision of an international organization adopted by the countries in crisis. Specific activities in this regard could be the confirmation of an arms control treaty; escorting and controlling authorized supplies of weapons or other dual-use items to prevent their disappearance or unauthorized use; dismantling, storing and destroying weapons; the detection, capture, identification and control of weapons of mass destruction (WMD).

Humanitarian aid operations

So-called "humanitarian operations" are conducted to assist populations and alleviate human suffering. This also applies to cases where the authorities in a country/region are unable or unwilling to provide support to the population. These types of operations are often conducted in the context of some other type of military operation, but it is also possible to conduct them independently. The population may be affected by natural disasters or human activity, or it may be the result of conflict or war, or political, ethnic or religious strife, but the need for the military provision of life-sustaining goods and materials must be assessed at the political level. Humanitarian aid is implemented in three variants: assistance to refugees and displaced persons, disaster relief and humanitarian aid, and in some cases the three categories overlap. Aid to refugees and displaced persons is aimed at providing vital resources and services, usually to large numbers of people who are compactly located outside settlements in a foreign country or in their home country but not in the area of their homes. Disaster relief is aimed at dealing with the aftermath and restoring the normal rhythm of life in disaster-affected areas where the population is living permanently and is usually in cooperation with humanitarian, national and international organisations. Humanitarian aid aims to provide food, water, materials and services to people suffering famine, drought, flood or conflict. Military and civilian elements act jointly or as national formations. These operations use the capabilities of the military component for supply, distribution, medical and engineering support. The coordinator of all actions may be: an international NGO, the UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs or the UN High Commissioner for Refugees Additional features of these operations are the actions in cooperation with the host country. Security forces may be used to protect material assets, individuals and to maintain public order. Strict accountability of the assistance provided is required, and the military must be prepared to hand over responsibilities to civilian organisations when the situation has calmed sufficiently and there is a decision to do so by the political authorities.

 

The participation of units of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Bulgaria in international humanitarian crises shall be decided by the National Assembly on a case-by-case basis.

 

Search and rescue operations, combat and non-combat.

 Search and rescue operations may be conducted in the context of other operations or independently. When part of combat operations, they are combat search and rescue operations. Otherwise they are non-combat.

In the Bulgarian Army, mainly the Special Operations Forces (SOF) have capabilities and are preparing to carry them out according to their concept of construction and development. Nevertheless, all formations of the Bulgarian Army should prepare to conduct such operations.

Search and rescue operations are frequently encountered as an element in earthquake relief operations. In the first few tens of hours after an earthquake, search and rescue operations for missing/buried people are the most important part of an earthquake recovery operation.

Search and rescue operations may also be part of a peacekeeping operation when a sudden escalation of conflict necessitates the search and rescue of civilians fleeing armed clashes. They may also be conducted independently in peacetime in inaccessible areas or in difficult weather conditions.

As stand-alone actions, search and rescue operations have the following main variants: search and rescue at sea; search and rescue of casualties in severe weather; search and rescue of casualties following disasters and accidents.

Maritime search and rescue operations are perhaps the oldest in history, but because of the very specific conditions under which they take place, they will not be discussed in detail.

Search and rescue of casualties in severe weather is not the primary task of the Army, but in the context of the changing roles and responsibilities of the armed forces, their formations must be prepared to perform such tasks as well. Normally, this is appropriate to be carried out by modular formations comprising engineers, chemists, scouts, other specialists as required, and representatives of the local authorities in the area affected by the disaster. In the context of internal security, the assistance of military formations to local authorities in severe weather is a practice with a tradition. In this respect, it is necessary to legally clarify things - which level of state authority can be approached directly for assistance and, most importantly, which level of command in the armed forces can be provided with the resources to ensure participation. These issues may find their solution in the forthcoming Crisis Management Act.

 

Operations in support of other security agencies against proliferation of WMD, illicit trafficking in persons, arms and drugs, terrorism and for the security and defence of important sites.

This is a new page in the history of the use of armed formations. These operations are required when other security organs cannot cope with the situation and the security or sovereignty of the country is threatened. The Bulgarian army does not yet have sufficient experience in this type of operation. On the other hand, our legislation does not clearly define the possibilities for armed formations to participate in this type of operations without declaring a state of emergency. The dynamics of the development of the international security environment makes it necessary to provide for the possibility of participation of armed forces in such operations without declaring a state of emergency and, if necessary, without publicising such participation. In these cases, it is important to make rational use of the capabilities of the armed forces to provide such operations - information, resources and personnel. Special Operations Forces will be used as a priority in such operations.

 

Disaster management operations.

The participation of the armed forces in the management or liquidation of the consequences of disasters and accidents on the territory of the Republic of Bulgaria shall be authorised by the Minister of Defence. In this case, in accordance with State plans at central and local level, the armed formations shall be led by the chairmen or representatives of the crisis management councils. Such a council exists within the Council of Ministers and similar councils can be set up on a territorial and/or site basis.

The involvement of armed forces units in the management or liquidation of the consequences of disasters, accidents and catastrophes outside the territory of the country shall be decided by the National Assembly on a case-by-case basis.

On the basis of bilateral agreements reached with some of the countries in the region (Turkey, Romania, Moldova) and the experience gained in disasters over the last few years, a system for joint action in the event of disasters, accidents, catastrophes and crises of a humanitarian nature in the countries of South-Eastern Europe is being developed on the basis of a unified system for detecting, reporting and responding to emergencies.

 

Air and maritime sovereignty operations

Air and maritime sovereignty operations are a distinct class of operations that may be an element of an overall response to a crisis situation or a stand-alone operation to address an isolated incident of a violation of the sovereignty of the Republic of Bulgaria. According to the Bulgarian Army's "Doctrine for Operations NP 3", they are:

- operations to ensure air sovereignty;

- operations in case of systematic and significant airspace violations;

- operations in a crisis or conflict in which the Republic of Bulgaria is not involved but shares a common border with a participating country;

- operations to secure maritime sovereignty;

- operations to enforce maritime control;

- escort operations;

- mine action operations;

- environmental operations.

Operations outside the territory of the country on the basis of an international commitment

Many of the operations mentioned may be conducted within the country or, in certain circumstances, outside the territory of the Republic of Bulgaria. However, on the basis of internationally undertaken commitments, elements of the armed forces may carry out tasks outside the territory of the country which are different from those mentioned, such as - embargo enforcement, escorting, security

escorting, providing assistance requested by another State, ensuring similar actions, etc.

 

Operations to assist civilian authorities and non-state organisations

In the rich experience of the Bulgarian army in the recent and distant past, there have been occasions when, in the absence of a crisis, disaster or emergency, civilian authorities and private organisations have sought the assistance of the armed forces to use some of their capabilities. Although the situation in recent years is quite different - the army's capabilities are limited - it is theoretically possible and should be envisaged that such assistance could be sought in the future.

 

In the OPM context, assistance to civilian authorities is provided on an ongoing basis through the CIMIC unit and when necessary and planned for civil-military operations. An essential approach to support to civilian authorities is that these operations are an integral and permanent part of the OPM, and even if the actions of military formations are not structured as a stand-alone operation, this does not change their nature.

In order not to contradict the main purpose of the armed forces, i.e. the defence of the state, the latter two types of PROs must fulfil several requirements that need to be clarified in advance, i.e.: they must be authorised by a political authority or the relevant level of command; they must not disrupt the training of the formations; they must not be at the expense of the army's budget; they must not directly use combat capabilities; they must not involve the violation of information confidentiality requirements.